I. Race/Culture
Play can increase the importance of young children developing a sense of pride in themselves and a sense of understanding of people in various cultures. They will learn more about their own culture as well as their peers through the innocence of play. Play serves an important role in enculturation. Traditional games, especially games with rules, generally form an integral part of a culture in that they provide a means of communication for social norms, assist in the assimilation of group members, and allow for differentiation among group members. Play of children in that society tended to reflect the culture as a whole. Sadly play in America is more based on the individual and the competition with others. Though this isn't completely terrible, it would be much better if importance of the group and interdependence of group members are stressed as opposed to independence and self-expression, like in Japan. Play is also a way for young children to practice the roles and skills they will need as adults, and these specific play behaviors may vary from culture to culture. For example, Fortes (1976), in an article reprinted from 1938, discussed play by children of the Tallensi people of North Africa. Fortes found that the play of children in that society tended to reflect the culture as a whole. Since farming and hunting were important parts of the culture, boys tended to play hunting games and practiced bow and arrow skills as a way of mastering the skills needed as adults (Rettig 1995). There are several stages in racial awareness that begin with an awareness of self as a toddler to exploring cultural identity and being able to identify stereotypes by five to six years of age. Sometime between age three and four children become aware of differences based on racial or ethnic background and this is very when children are playing with each other. With Black and White kindergarten children, children preferred to play with same color playmates. The children were observed at play both in the classroom and on a playground. The dramatic play area may be a good place to enhance cultural awareness. In this play area, children can easily explore what it is like to live in another culture. Kendall (1983) suggests that the materials in the dramatic play area be changed periodically to reflect different styles of living (Rettig 1995).
II. Gender
a. Parents generally prefer that their children adhere to traditional gender-roles, and are concerned when they do not. Studies have shown that boys who engage in traditionally feminine activities are viewed more negatively than girls who engage in masculine activities. This is because it is common for girls to be "tom boys" at early ages. They may be this way because they have only brothers or their father may impose "manly" or "boyish" play activities on them. Explanations have been proposed to account for differential evaluations given to cross-gender behavior of boys and girls; two other explanations involve expectations about the child's future about parents’ fear. Parents also believe that cross-gender play in boys, more than in girls, is an indicator of later same-gender sexual behavior. Parents fear that feminine boys will grow up to be either gay or transsexual. Play patterns are derived from a combination of innate differences, peers, the media and parental influences. The media and other outside influences begin to play a bigger role in reinforcing sexual stereotypes for school-age children. It is nearly impossible
to find little girls in commercials for action figures or boys playing with dolls. Parents should remember "Play is a natural curiosity that brings fulfillment (Gray 1996)." When you observe boys and girls playing basketball, digging in the sandbox or scooting a train along train tracks, and you realize there are no differences in the way they play.
III. Play and Children with Disabilities
Based on qualitative research focusing on disabled children, this study investigated the play in playgrounds of six schools in Yorkshire. Good practice for including disabled students in play included individual routines allowing for playtimes, training, valuing and retention of support staff. In addition, some staff were able to encourage confidence in disabled children play. Barriers to inclusion in play for the disabled children were identified as organizational, social and physical. The research identified good practice in some organizational and social aspects of the schools visited. However, little good practice, except for the provision of ramps, was found with respect to physical issues in the playgrounds.
There are barriers that hinder disabled students ability to play:
Organisational barriers
- Lack of afternoon playtime in some schools.
- Reduced play opportunities at break and lunch-times for some focus children because of their individual routines – many of which were historic in origin and had not been reviewed.
- Training of staff with responsibilities for disabled children was, in the main, related to issues such as health and safety.
- Finding the balance between taking risks and maintaining health and safety was not easy for all school staff responsible for focus children; this sometimes resulted in limitations to play opportunities for the focus children.
Social barriers
- Focus children, who spent a great deal more time than many of the non-disabled children with staff, were restricted in their opportunity to play with their peers (although they also sometimes displayed more confidence in their dealings with adults).
- Adults who spent time associated with one or two particular children (for example, PSAs for the focus children) could become a magnet for other children, thus influencing other social interactions within the playground.
- The organisational issue of balancing risk with maintaining health and safety was sometimes compounded by the attitudes of the staff member who might be with a focus child at any one time. Thus, sometimes, children wanted to do things but were prevented from doing so, or thought not capable of the activity, by a member of staff.
Physical barriers
- Some physical barriers existed to the inclusion of disabled children in play in the primary school playgrounds investigated. These related to access to playgrounds and the fixed equipment within them, the design of the playground and the fixed equipment and details in the playing surfaces and access between them.
Acknowledging the limitations of this qualitative study, the researchers suggest that the following could improve the inclusion of disabled children in play opportunities in primary school playgrounds:
- School routine: the retention – or reintroduction – of afternoon playtimes; the possible introduction of playtimes allowing mixed age groups to play together.
- Individual routine: the inclusion of free-time – playtimes and lunch-times – in disabled children's reviews.
- Staff experience: the acknowledgement and reward of good quality work by staff responsible for disabled children.
- Training: a variety of training for staff, relevant to their situation and responsibilities. Once staff have been trained they should be encouraged to stay with a school. It might be appropriate for trained and experienced staff to remain responsible for a particular disabled child over a period of time in order to help develop the child's confidence.
- The role of staff in the playground: staff should be helped to understand the constructive and supporting, but not dominating, role that they can take in the playground with respect to disabled children's play. This could be by awareness training and a mentoring system.
- Power relations: decisions about disabled children, their routines, desires and aspirations relating to outdoor play in the playground should be based upon a dialogue between child, parents or guardians, school staff and, if appropriate, external support staff.
I. Race/Culture--http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/jeilms/vol15/playandc.htm
II. Gender-- http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_/ai_54710015
http://listweb.bilkent.edu.tr/kadin/1996/May/0118.html
III. Play and Children with Disabilities -- http://www.jrf.org.uk/knowledge/findings/socialpolicy/0016.asp
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